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1、INTRODUCTIONTheGuidingThemesThetwentiethcenturywitnessedafatefulchangeintherelationshipbetweenscienceandsociety.InWorldWarIscientistswereconscriptedanddiedinthetrenches.InWorldWarIItheywereexemptedasnationaltreasuresandcommittedtosecrecy,andtheyralliedbehindtheircountry’swa
2、reffort.Theexplanationofthechangeisnothardtofind—governmentscametobelievethattheoreticalresearchcanpro-ducepracticalimprovementsinindustry,agriculture,andmedicine.Thatbeliefwasfirmlyreinforcedbydevelopmentssuchasthediscov-eryofantibioticsandtheapplicationofnuclearphysicstothe
3、produc-tionofatomicweapons.Sciencebecamesoidentifiedwithpracticalbenefitsthatthedependenceoftechnologyonscienceiscommonlyassumedtobeatimelessrelationshipandasingleenterprise.Scienceandtechnology,researchanddevelopment—theseareassumedtobealmostinseparabletwins.Theserankamongth
4、esacredphrasesofourtime.Thebeliefinthecouplingofscienceandtechnologyisnowpet-rifiedinthedictionarydefinitionoftechnologyasappliedscience,andjournalisticreportsundertherubricof“sciencenews”are,infact,oftenaccountsofengineeringratherthanscientificachievements.Thatbelief,however,
5、isanartifactoftoday’sculturalattitudessuper-imposedwithoutwarrantonthehistoricalrecord.Althoughthehis-toricalrecordshowsthatintheearliestcivilizationsunderthepatron-ageofpharaohsandkings,andingeneralwhenevercentralizedstatesarose,knowledgeofnaturewasexploitedforusefulpurpos
6、es,itcan-notbesaidthatscienceandtechnologyweresystemicallyandcloselyrelated.Bythesametoken,inancientGreece(wheretheoreticalsciencehaditsbeginning),amongthescholasticsoftheMiddleAges,inthetimeofGalileoandNewton,andevenforDarwinandhiscontempo-rariesinthenineteenthcentury,scie
7、nceconstitutedalearnedcallingwhoseresultswererecordedinscientificpublications,whiletechnol-ogywasunderstoodasthecraftspracticedbyunschooledartisans.Untilthesecondhalfofthenineteenthcenturyfewartisansorengineersattendedauniversityor,inmanycases,receivedanyformalschoolingatall
8、.Conversely,thesciencecurriculumoftheuniversitycenteredlargelyonpuremathematicsand
