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摘要在英语学习的过程中，出错是在所难免的，尤其是口语表达。对学习者错误的兴趣成为应用语言学及二语习得研究的一部分。对于语言输出即写、说方面的错误，语言学家和语言教师花费精力定义、捕写、诊断、纠正以及评价。笔者在教授非英语专业研究生英语听说课时，发现研究生口语交流时也毫不例外地犯语言错误及沿用错误。无}仑教师与学生怎样努力，错误都不可避免并具有持久性。因此，有必要对非英语专业研究生的口语错误及其纠错进行一番研究。西方语言学家提出了许多关于学习者错误分析的理论，但在中国这些理论与实际是脱离的。很少有人系统地探讨口语错误的根源以期寻找有效的改正方法。为此该研究采用问卷调查的形式，目的是通过中介语假发论系统地分析非英语专业研究生对口语错误的态度、理解、出错的根源并提出有效的纠错措施。受试者为【h西财经大学2005级22个非英语专、止的围家计划研究生，不包括省筹生和研修生。实发问卷178份，有效问卷168份(无效问卷为省筹生和研修生)，有效率为94．38％。对168份有效问卷用EpiData3．0软件进行编码、录入、数据审核。然后用统计软件SPSS以频数分布或柱状图的形式进行数据分析。至于口语出错原因的30个变量则采用因子分析和相关系数分析。经过对非英语专业研究生口语错误及其纠错进行了全面的、系统的分析与研究，本文主要有以下发现：1．学生对口语交流时所犯的错误及其纠错持积极的态度；2．合乎语法才i再是判断口语正确与否的唯一标准， 取两代之麴是正确的发音、得体性与可接受性；3．母语干扰是口语出错的主要原冈，尤其是汉语发音、词汇和句子结构的干扰；4．情感因素诸如焦虑、缺乏动机、兴趣也影响口语的表达；5．研究中还发现，男女生口语出错率的离散程度相同，但男生的出错率比女生满。尽管该研究还存在一些不尽人意的地方，但口语错误分析仍对于口语教与学的提高有缀大意义，它不仅使久更深藏邀认识教与学酶过程，而且为教学活动提供实际的帮助。关键谲：镁误分李厅：2q蹙：中分语；英语教学 AbstractltisinevitableforL2learnerstocommiterrorsinthecourseoflearningEnglish，especiallyinOl’alEnglish．Theinterestinlearnererrorsisbecomingapartofpragmaticlinguistsandsecondtanguageacquisition。Muchefforthasbeenmadetodefine，describe，diagnose，correctandvaluelearnerell'orsinproduction，includingerrorsinwritingandspeaking，IntheprocessofteachingEnglishListeningandSpeakingfornon—Englishmajorgraduatestudents，itis*bundthatitisnoexceptioneven*brgraduatestudentstocommitsomelinguisticandpragmaticel’rol‘sinspeaking，Thus，itisofgreatnecessitytodoresearchonthetopicWesternscholarshaveproposednaanytheoriesconcerninglearnererl’ors，whichhaverarelybeen伯rfrombeingsufficientlypracticedbyanguageteachers。especiallyintheChinesecontext，Againstsuchbackground，thisstudyisintendedtoanalyze，intennsof1H，learners’owninterpretation，errorsourcesandCOlTectionexpectation。mordertohownon—Englishmajorgraduatestudentsunderstandandtreatoralerrors，aquestionnaireincluding29multiple—choiceitemsisdesignedandthendisu'ibutedamong178graduatestudentsinGrade2005fi'om2211011一Eng|ishmajorsinShanxiUniversityofFinance&Economics，168validcopiesarenumbered，input，examinedandverifiedbymeansofEpiData3．0software BasedOnthestatisticalanalysissoftwareSPSS，mostofthedataareanalyzedinthewayoffi'equencydistributioneitherinthelbrmoftablesorhistogramsAsforthevariablescausingoralerrors，factoranalysisandcorrelationcoefficientanalysisarepreferred．ThedataaretheoreticallyandsystematicallydiscussedandevaluatedonthebasisofInterlanguageHypothesisAfteracomprehensiveandsystematicanalysisaboutandinvestigationintooralerrors，sortieIllajOrfindingsareobtained：1．Apositiveattitudeisheldtowardsoralerrorsanderrorcorrection；2．Grammaticalityisnotbelievedtobethesolestandardf’orthejudgmentoforalEnglishcorrectness．Instead，correctpronunciation，appropriatenessandacceptabilityal‘ehighlyvaluedinspokenEnglish；3．MTinterferenceisconsideredtherootcauseoforalerrorsinphonetic，lexicalandsyntacticaspects；4．Affectivefactol’Splayanequallyimportantpartinoralerrors，suchasclassroomanxiety,lackofmotivationandinterest；5．Malestudentsaresubjecttocommitmoreel‘rorsintheCOUrSeofspeakingthanfemalestudentsdespitetheirequaldispersionaroundthemeansDespitesomelimitations，thisstudyisstillofgreatsignificancetoL2earningandtheimplementationandimprovementoforalEnglishteachingbyimprovinglearners’awarenessandoffet’ingpracticalaidKeyWords：erroranalysis；el‘rotCOrl’ection；interlanguage；ELT AcknowledgementsMymostsincereappreciationisfirstextendedtoProf．NieJianzhongandProEWuYaxin，Prof．YuGuodong，Prof．JiMofangandProfLiuHailiang，whosethought—provokinglectureshaveenlightenedltleinstatisticsinlinguistics，linguistictheories，dissertationwl-itingandEUFSOthat1couldselectatopic，developitfullyintothepresentpapm’intime1wouldespeciallyliketothankmysupervisor,Prof,NieJianzhong，whoofferedmecareihl，patientguidanceandconstructive，valuableadviceinconductingandfinishingthisdissertation，Moreencouragementandsupportweregivento1Tiewhen1wasinadilemmaIamdeeplyindebtedtomycolleaguesProfiBaiShuqin，ProfiHongChuanying．Prof．ZhangYanlingandProf．PanXiuqinfortheirhelpandsupport．Wheneverlencounteredsomeproblemsinpreparingandwritingmydissertation，theyextendedawarmhandtoprovidemewithteasibtesuggestionSMyprofoundthanksshouldalsogotomydearhusbandMr．QiaoShuangxiandmylovelydaughterQiaoXiaobing，whogreatlysupportedmyfurtherpursuitintheSchoolofForeignLanguages，ShanxiUniversityInaword，thefinalaccomplishmentofthestudyhasbeenowedgreatlytOallthosementionedaboveOFthosewhosenan'iesdonotappem’hel+e，butI’ITIresponsiblefortheerrorsthatstillremain ChapterOneIntroductionLearnererrorsinlearningEnglishareconsideredtobeallimportantandinevitablepartillsecondlanguageacquisition《SLA)。’Fherearesomeoccasionswhenallerrorisnotgraveenoughtobenoticedwhilethereareotheroccasionswhenanel‘rorisSOseriousthatitn']ayleadtomisunderstandingorevenfailuresincomllmnication．Withthedevelopmentofthestudyonlanguageandlanguageteaming，extensivestudiesonlearnererrorshavelongbeenconductedsince1940’sbyresearchers，linguists，sociolinguistsandpsychologistsforthesakeofimprovingEnglishlanguageteaching(ELI’)．Muchefforthasbeenmadetodeline二describe，diagnose，correctandvaluelearnererrorsinproductionincludingbothwrittenerrorsandoralerrorsForChinesestudents，Englishistakenasacompulsorysubiect．rheirmostandimmediateaimoflearningEnglishistopassallkindsofexaminationsinordertogetcertificates：resultinginlnoreaccuracythanfluency．Itisnoexceptionfor13011一Englishnlajolgradualesl。1ThebackgroundtothestudyNowadays，underthecircumstances011vigorouslydevelopingChinabymeansofscienceandeducation，moreattentionhasbeenpaidtothehighereducationandmoreinvestmenthasbeenpumpedinto弧稻improvethegeneralqualityandeducationstandardofthenation．itisessentialtospeedupthegraduateadmissionsatarateof15％pm’year,reachingatotalofabout370：000in2005。Anappropriateproportionofenrolmentextensionmaybehelpt＼d：allowingllqorepeopletoreceivegraduateeducationalandofferingmoreopportunitiestObebeltereducated，Ilowever,moreadmissionsforgraduateshavegivenIHisetosolneproblems．SUChastheqltalitydeclineandtheemploymentdir2]culty，Whatcountsisthattheyshouldbeequippedwithwell—groundedknowledgenotonlyinmajorbutalsoinbasicsubjects．ItisworthystudyingtileproblemsexistinginEnglishlearning，especiallyoralEnglishAsiSknowntoa11．itisinevitablelbrL2tearnm’StocommiterrorsintheCot[rseof ——!!!!!!：!!!!!!!!：!!!!!旦!!!!!!竺!!型!!：!!型!!!竺_!!!，!!!!!堡i!!!!!!——learningEnglish，especiallyinoralEnglish．IntheteachingofEnglishListeningandSpeakingfornon—Englishmaiorgraduatestudents，itistbundthatitis210exceptionevenIbrgraduatestudentstoconmfitsomelinguisticandpragmaticerrorsInfact，intheNationalEntranceTesto／’EnglishforMA／MSCandidates(NE。rEM)：allofthemreachedthenationalrequiredentrancestandardof53pointsandeveuhigher,whichindicatestheyhavehadacommandofabout5，300wordsandreachedahighproficiencylevel．fhey’veacquiredcertainsccondlanguage(SL／L2)knowledgeandskills，especiallydoingbetterinreading，writingandtranslation．Butitdoesn’tfollowthattheycanhaveagoodoraloutputofwhatthey’velearned．It'struethatmostofthemCallanddareopentheil’mouthinclass，butitisunavoidableforthemtocommitmanyerrorsinsteadofexpressingthemselveswith．1laeneyandaccuracy,Itisofgreatsignificancetoofferaconsiderablydetaileddiscussionaboutandinvestigationintotheclassification，sourcesoforalerrorsandstudents：attitudesSOthatallefficientandeflkctivewayofcorrectionwillbeputforward，contributingmuchtobothSI。AandELT1．2LearnererrorsasresearchSUhiectofSLAandELTToerristruman，therebeingnoneotherthanhunlanerror：animalsdonotcommiterrors．Iftoerrmadtospeakareeachuniquelyhuman。thentoerrinspeakingmustrepresentthetopofhumanuniqueness．Therearesonicoccasionswhenanerrorisnotseriousenoughtobenoticed。ThereareotheroccasionswhenaaerrorisSOgravethatitmayleadtofailuresincornmunication，tomisunderstandingorevenseriousconsequences．Togetherwiththedevelopmentofthestudyonlanguageandlanguagelearning，greatIbcusisputonlearnererrorsamonglinguists，sociolinguists，psychologistsandhavedevelopedintoamuchdiscussedandcultivatedfieldbothinLIandL2learning。MuchefforthasbeenmadetOfindtheanswerstosuchquestionsas：1、Ilowtotreatlearnerefrors—一asfoiluresoraspositiveaidstolanguagelearning；2)Whatcauseserrors；3)llowtoidenti趣classi玲anddescribeerrors；41HOWtoevaluatethem．2 Sincethe1940s，thetreatmentoferrorshasbeenputfbl。wardatatheoreticallevelanditremainstobepracticedbylanguageteachers．InChinawherelanguagelearnerstendtoben'loreinstrulnentallY—motivatedthanintegratively—motivated．Englishislearnedforthesakeofgettingapromotion，doingbusiness，goingabroadorobtainingawell—knownqualificationForthestndentswholearnEnglishasacompulsorycourse，themostandimmediateaimoflearningEnglishistopassavarietyofexaminationsSOastogetcertificates．Asaresult，oralEnglishpracticehasMugbeenpaidlittleattentionto，resuhinginmuteEnglishandChinglish('Wallg[311)withdifferentfornlsoferrors．Even11011一EnglishnlajorgraduatestudentscanhardlyexpressthemselvesaccuratelyandfluentlyFhercfore，itisworthwhileconductingadetailedstudyontheerrorsanditscorrectionintheoralEnglishofnon—Englishmajorgraduatestudentstothebenefitol’L21earnersamdteachers1．3ThescopeofthepresentresearchTheanalysisofleamel。el‘rotshadlongbeenapartoflanguagepedagogy．Traditionally．errorsarethoughtofasfaiMesinL2learning，eitheronteachers‘partoronlearners’partFheyshouldbepntrightthenlinutetheyoccur．Thereductionofthefrequencyot’erroroccurrencesisbelievedtobeduetotheimprovementlanguageskills．Scholars．1angnageteachersandlearnershaveallbeenstrugglingtoeradicateerrors．Asearlyas1949，dielanguageteacherFrenchbegantodiscusscommonerrorsinEnglish；hetriedtogiveexplanationsabouttheil。cal．1sesandalsosuggestedpreventionandcure．Lee∞arguedthatsuchananalysisputtheteacherinabetterpositiontodecidehowtOspendteachingtime．Inthe1950sandearly1960sthefavoredtheoryt、orstudyingL2learningandorganizingteachingwasColltz‘astiveA1mlysis(CA)，basedonStl’ucturalismandBehaviorism．Lado㈣statedthate㈣1smL2lem，ningcouldbepredictedandexplainedbyidentifyinganddescribingthelinguisticdifferencesbetweentirestructuralsystemsoftheirmothertongue(Mrj’)andtargetlanguage(TL)．CorderHlput11101‘eemphasisOilthe⋯Lee957、ciledin1-21Iis994 ——～竺塑!!兰坚!一S—tud)'oil—timOra～lErrorsofNon-EnglisihMaterGraduateStudents——significanceoflearners’errors．Mostoftheerrorswerebelievedasdevelopmental，Butitwasnotuntilthe1970sthatErrorAnalysis(EA)becamearecognizedpartot、appliedlinguistics，whichprovidedamethodologytbrinvestigatingthelearners’learningprocesses。Selinker㈣statedthatlearnershadapartiallycorrectmentalpictureOflhestructureoftheL2atanygivenmoment，i．e，Interianguage(IL)，accountingforthevariabililYbetween1,2leamers，James㈣putlbrwardTransFerAnalysis(T-A)，diagnosingerrorsbycomparingthedifierencesbetweenIL：TL，UndertheChinesecontext，greatef}『brthasalsobeenmadeconcerninglearnererrors。ManyChineselinguistsandlanguageteachershaveappliedtherelevanttheoriesintoELT．Manyrelevantarticleshavebeenpublished，suchasMaf28】，5(anf‘91，Yangf30】，Lul271，Wen[331，offeringtheirwayoftreatinglearnererrorsonthebasisoftheirpersonalpracticeinEL'I：Meanwhile，toOklrjoy，thefirstdatabaseforChineselearnershasbeensetupbyGuiI”1，collectingandanalyzingtheerrorsinwriting，andadvancingcorrespondingtreatment．ChineseLem‘nerEnglishCorpus(CLEC)wasanationalprqiectonlearnererrorsinChina，directedbyGut，alinguisticp1．ofessorinGuangdong13hivel。sit)；of"F01’eignStudies．However,mostoftheachievementsofthepredecessorsonthestudyoflearnererrorshaveremainedSOfartoallextensiveextent，generallyintermsofwriting‘fheoralerrorsproducedbyChineselearnerswithhighproficiency(ie．Null—Englishmajorgraduatestudents)arerarelystudied．Forthisreason，thepresentstudyisdesignedtodiscoverhowtheirteacheiSandleamersunderstandandtreattheeraierrorsonthebasisoftheprevioustheoriesandstudiesThisthesiswilldealmainlywiththelbllowingquestionsinthecaseot’Non—Englishmajorgraduatestudents：1)Howaretheoralerrorsperceived?2)Ⅵ，hatelT01。Semergeintheil。speech?3’Whatarethemainsourcesoftheoralerrors'?4)Areoralem)rslinkedtOsexes?5)ShouldOI+alerrorsbecorrectedandbywhom?6)Whataretheeffectivewaysinimprovingtheirspeakingcompetellce?4 1．4TheimportanceoferroranalysisinoralEnglishItshouldbenoted：though，thatmanyoftheresearchersw-bocarriedouterroranalysesinthe1970scontinuedtobeconcernedwithlanguageteaching．hldeed，theattempttOdiscovermoreaboutL2acquisitiont11roughthestudyoferrorsWaSitselfmotivatedbyadesiretOimprovepedagogyBycollectingdifferenttypesoferrorsinclassroomteaching，explainingthecausesandfigm。ingoutthecorrespondingcorrectionmeasures．CorderI5】notedthaterrorscouldbesignificantinthreeways：1)Theyprovidedtheteachm‘withinlbrmationabouthowmuchthelearnerhadIeamt；2)’fheyprovidedrescareherswithevidencesofhowlanguagewaslearnt；3)Tile5,servedasdevicesbywhichthelearnerdiscoveredthe1'tilesofthetargetlanguageHowever．theauthorthinksthaterrol’analysis，especiallyinoralEnglishofnon—EnglishmajorgraduatcstudentsCallbeofgreatvalueinfouraspects：1)Ithelpsit)understandtheprocessofL2speakingacquisition；2)ItshowsstatisticallythetroublesomelinguisticareasorerrorsthatL2learnersencounterinspeaking；3)Itgivesvaluablefeedbacktobothteachersandlearnel’Sregardingleanlerspeakingstrategiesandprogress；4)ItprovidesresearcherswithinsightsintotheilatureofL2speakingacquisitionprocess．1．5Thecompositionofthisdissertation11hedissertationiscomposedofsixchaptm’S，Chaptel‘Oneoffersabriefintroductiontotheel。rol-amllysisinL2lem。ning．Thel_elevantresearchesdoneinthisfieldarereviewedfromthreestagesinChapter‘I'WO：theearlierstage，theheydayandtinelateststage．InChapterThree．atheoreticalbasiscenteringonInterlanguageHypothesis(1H)isdevelopedfullybelb)。ethereferencetothelimitationsofCAandEA．inChapterFourtheresearchmetllodologyusedt、ordatacollectionisintroduced．includingthesubjectsandthei 盎!苎!!!墅!!!!!!!!羔!!!!!Q黧!至!竺!!!羔!!：兰!垒!塑登篓篓墅坚生篓!!塑!!!!!proceduresofinvestigationandthedatadevice．GreatfocusisputonthediscussionandresultsofthecollecteddatainChapterFiveLastly，conclusionsarereachedandmeanwhilesomeimplicationsinEUI"arearrivedat． ChapterTwoLiteratureReviewThecollection，classificationandanalysisel⋯errorsinthewrittenandspokcnperformanceofL2learnershavehadaroleinappliedlinguisticsandlanguageteachingsinceatleastthe1950s．Inthemiddlepartot、thetwentiethCelltUfy,themostpopularCAwasthestudyoftileditre：，eucesbetweenMTm：dTLi11cent：。ast．Inthelate1960s，however：thereemergedanewsignificmlceinthestudyoftearnererrol‘s．It＼vasnotuntilthe1970sthatEAand1Lreachedtheheyday,，attributedmuchtotheworkofCorder．Asaresult．muchresearchhasbeendoneonEAandIL：basedOllthedatafromlanguage]eamers’sentencesandutterancesinthetargetlanguage。DifferentapproachestothefindingsoflearnererrorsareveryusefulandcanbeadoptcdinmyownresearchprojectMeanwhile：the]imilatioiISofthepreviousresearchesallowintichreelnforfurtberstudies．Onthisbasis，itisofgreatsignificancetohaveabriefoverviewofresearchesinthisfieldforthesakeofthelightthrownonasuccessfulfollow—upstud?,2．1TheearlierstageBothlinguistsandclassroomteachershavemadegreatefforttoadvancestudiesinanalyzingerrorsemerginginlearningFL．Intheearlierstageofthestudy,errorsareregardedasanegativepartoflanguagelearning．Foronething：theyshouldbeputrightthenlonlenttheyOccur．Foranother,learnererrorscanbeavoidedbycon：paringthedi能rcncesandsimilaritiesbetweenMTandTI，2。l。lFrenchItispossiblyFrench．o：leoftheefllliestlanguageteachers，whopaysattentiontolearnererrol’s洒thefieldSLA，Heprovidesacomprehensiveaccountofconl：nOl／learnerelTOINThroughhisstudyO：1theerrorsof"thestudentsfromdifferentcountries，itisIburldthatonly,afewoftileerrorsarepurelyregional，themeijorityofthenlareloundtobeCOlTwnonalIovertheworldregardlessoflearningenviromnentorteachingniethods．French噬a／sodiscussesaboutthetypesoferrorsandaboutthe‘1symptoms”oftheseriousandpet‘sistentel‘rots．1 Asfaraserrorpreventionismentioned．French[9jthinkslinguisticpatternsplayanimportantrole，includingsentencepatterns，ptn'asepatterns，patternsoftenseusageandrelatedgrammaticalconventionsandpatternsbasedontheidiomaticaseofstructuralwords．DrillsarethebestwaytomakepatternsatKomaticandhabitual，i．e，teacherscaneitherdrillincorrectstandardpattemsordrillouterrors．However,hisclassificationoferrortypesandexplanationofthecausesoferrorsaretoosimplisticandsuperficial．2．1。2LadoLado，oneoftheearliestmidthemostfamouslinguistswhotbcusOIltheen'orsofL2learnersjbaseshisstudyonacomparisonbetweenMTandTLtopredictanddescribetheproblemsthatL2learnersencounter．Hisresearchrestsuponthehypothesisthatthepatternsinsyntax，lexicalitemsandphonologycausingdifficultyandthose{hilingtocausedifficulty,，canbepredictedanddescribedbymakingacarefulandsystematiccomparisonbetweenthelanguageandtheculturetobeleamedandthelearner’snativelanguageandculture．Basedonhislongandrichexperienceofteaching，Lado㈣providesahighlydetaileddescriptionanddiscussionofwaysonthecomparisoninphonok)gy，grammar，lexicaliterns：writingandcultureofthetwoinvolvedlanguagesystems．ItisobservedthatintheprocessofL2learning，avarietyoferrorsarecommittedowingtothenegativetransferofthenativelanguagetothetargetlanguage．Specifically：peopleareinclinedtotransferthephoneme，stressandrhythm；intonation，interaction：sentenceform，modificationdevice。nnmber,gender，casepattern，writinghabitandculturalhabitsoftheirnativelanguagetothetargetlanguage．Forexample，itiseasiertodetectcertainaccentsandtobeabletotell，fromhisspeechalone，wherethelearneris舟。m．WhenitOccurs．thelearneJlisnotevenawareofitexceptontheconditionthatheiscalledtOpay,closeattention．‘Yhoseitemsthataresinfilarbetweentwolanguageswillbeeasytolearnbecausewhentransferredtheywill“functionsatisfactorilyinthefo,’eignlanguage．Thosethataredifferentwillbedifficultbecausewhentransferredtheywillnotfunctionsatisfactorilyintheforeignlanguageaimwillthereforehavetobechanged’⋯．∞L』ado．R』．mgtfislicAct"5jCrf“ⅢEsATⅧArbor：lhliversilyoiMichigallPress，1957：57 ThisexplainswhythepronunciationofaGermanspeakerofEnglishisobvioust3，differentfromthatot+aChinesespeakerlearningthesameEnglish．Besides，ithelpstonnderslandwhyEnglishleamersproducesuchsentencesas；‘‘t8hadabigtSmily．Thereareiburpeople．⋯‘I*willveryglad”．LadeⅢ1suggeststhat‘’theteacherwhohasmadeacomparisonoftheforeignlanguagewiththenativelanguageel’thestudentswillknowbetterwhatthereallearningproblemsareandcallbetterprovidetbrteachingthem哆IncaseswhenlealhererrorsresultfromL1interference。thestudyofLadecallatleastprovideaframeworkof’whattocomparebetweentwolanguages．2．2TheheydayofEATheIraditionalanalysesareinabsenceof“bothaI‘igorotismethodologyandatheoreticalframeworkforexplainingtheroleplayedbyerrorsintheprocessofL2acquisition”。Theretbre．inthelatel960s，CAassumptionwasgreatlychallengedandgavewaytoEA，Inthe1970s。EAdevelopedintoatheoreticalsystemandreacheditsheyday_WhatmattersistothrowlightOUtheprocessofL2acquisition，whichisofgreatsignificancetotheimprovementofpedagogy。2，2．1SelinkerJustasLIchildrenbuilduptheirknowledgeofthelanguagestructure，L2learnersCallhavetheiro＼vnunderlyingsystem．whichcanbedescribedinitsowntermsandthenformmoreorlesscorrecthypothesesabouttheL2gramntaticalsystem：i．e．interlanguagenamedbySelinkel’阑一atermtosuggesttheintermediatestagesbetweenthelearners’nativelanguageandtiletargetlanguageandtocmphasizethatthelanguageofL2learuel’SisindependentofbothNLandTL，butasortol、mixtureofbothlanguages。Inotherwords．atanygivenmoment．1earnershaveacorrectmentalpictureofthestructureoftheL2．Selinkcr㈣believestiledevelopmentofILisconcernedwithfiveprocessescentraltoL2learning：languagetransfer,transl?roftraining，strategiesofsecondlanguagelearning，“Lado．R￡fJlgtf|istfcAcpossCulturesAnnArbor：UnverstyofMichiganPress．1957：2。。I,；llis：RTheSn,4vofS?condLangua,2e,4eqldsitionOxford：OxfordUniversib’Press，I99,1：48Reprintedillt999ShanghaiI：oreignLanguageEducationPressShanghai+ strategiesofsecondlanguagecommunicationandovergeneralizationofTLlinguisticmaterial．GreatimportancecanbeattachedtoSelinker’Sfindingsintheprocessoflanguagetcaching．7leachersshonldnotfeeldiscouragedwhenfacedwiththeerrorsofthestudents，butpresentclearandsufficientinstructionstoavoidmisleadingandconfusinglearners‘understandingInaword，interlanguageresearchhasofferedamorerigorousmethodologyandarichertheoreticalbasisforthestudyofSI—，A．2．2．2CorderCorder,oneofthepres|igiouslinguists，contributedmuchtothedevelopmentofEA．InI967，hepublishedthepaper：Thesign(ficanceo厂learners’errors．Sincethen，learnererrorshavebeenregardedasapositiveandsignificantpartinsteadofastheobstaclestobeeradicated．Inthecase011L2learners．thelearnerisusing‘’adefinitesystemoflanguageateverypointinhisdevelopment‘～．whichisneitherthesystemof、L1northatofL2Learnererrorsgiveevidenceofthisparticularsystem，revealingthelearners’underlyingknowledgeofthelanguage“arethemselvessystematic”，formingthelearner‘Sownself-containedlinguisticsystemsandare‘。idiosyncraticdialects确．meaning‘。theuniquelanguageistoaparticularindividual哆Whenitcomestothereasonsforlearnererrors．Corder【5]thinksthreemainreasonscanoffertheexplanation：¨intm·ference．oVergeneralizationandteachinginducedlhctors．AccordingtoCorder【5】，itisnotwisetodothecorrectionrightafteranerroriscommittedInstead．itismoreinstructivetomakealearnerdiscovertherightformbycreatingaproblem·solvingsituation．Whetheranutteranceiscorrectordeviantwhollydependsonitssituationalcontext，Therefore，languageteachershavebeenencouraged10concentrateonlearnm’errorsmorepositively'“CotderI’n，("Ana[ysisandInleJlanguageACollectionol、hisPapers：Oxford：OxfbrdUniversit',’Press198I10“SinfilartO⑤”BrownJ。lDPJ’inciples∥hvlguage止wnmgrindteachingPearsonHallRegents．1994：2040 2．3ThelateststageL2learnerscallbeseenas“activelyconstructingrulesfromthedatatheyencounterandgraduallyadaptingtheserulesinthedirectionofthetargetlanguagesystem’’”．Underthiscircunlstance，moreresearchhasbeendoneonthelearner’serrorsinthecourse0fdevelopingsystenlsandtiledataprocessing2．3．1JamesCarlJames；awell—knownlinguistinrecentyears．undertakesappliedlinguisticsresearchinthreedonlains：contrastiveanalysisanderloranalysis，andlanguageawarenesaintbreignlanguagelearning．In1980．hehadhisbookConl，。asti_l，eAnalysispublished，andin1998，ErrorsinLanguageLearningandUseExploringErrorlAnalys'is，bothotlwhichhavcproducedtar—reachinginfluence0nImlguagelearningandlanguageteaching．AccordingtoJamesf】2】'ILHypothesis，stressedbyCorderandSelinker,refusestotakeintoaccountthecomparativefactorsusedinCAbetweenMTandTI。．since“errorsinILmodelCallbefullydescribedintermsoftheTL．withouttheneedtorefertotheL1ofthelem’ners”，Butthefactisthattheanalysisol、errorscanllotgoaheadwithoutcomparisonandthatinterferencefromMTisobviouslyamajorsourceoftroubleinlearningFL．Contrastiveanalysishasturnedoutinstructiveinlocatingareasofinterlanguageinterference．TA，sotospeak，isamoderatinghypothesisbycomparingMrwithIL．Therefore．“TAissomethingsalvagedfronlCAandaddedtoEA，thebalancehassbifted”．However,TAisnotCAanylongerinthatTAisconductedbycomparingILwithMT,notMTwithTL．FhefollowingtableCalltellthedifferencesamongthetheoriesinanalyzingtheerl‘ors：F'igure2IPomtsofcompal。isonforSlICCeSSJlⅥFLieⅡ{ningparadigmsg]ames1998．3)⋯】_ittlewood．Ⅵf"orelgnandSecondLanguagelean'ingCambridge：CambrklgeUnivelsit)'Press1998：22⋯Jalll@S．Cf,'rrorsinlanguagelea；’ningandIISC．explmlinggt-rol。ana@sisAddisonWesleyLOnglllanLimited1998：6[Qprinledin2003．FITRP：Bet．1ing AnAnal)一liculStudyoT1theOralErrorsofNoll·EnglishMajorGraduateStudentsJmnes旧givesadetailed，comprehensiveandsystematicinvestigationandanalysisoforalerrors．Hebelievesthattherearefourstepsindescriptionoferrors：errordetection，location．descriptionandclassification．Whenitconiestothelevelsoferrorsinspeaking，threelevelsarementioned：substance，textanddiscourse．“Learnersmakeerrorsinbothcomprehensionandproduction．：⋯However．mostSLAresearchconcentrateonproductionerrors．Asforcomprehensionerrors，theyhavereceivedlittleattention．sinceitishardtoattributethecauseforcomprehensionfailurestoallinadequateknowledgeofaparticularsyntacticfeatureofamisunderstoodutterance．b'orexample，alearnermisunderstandsthesentence“Passmethepaper”as。‘Passmethepepper”，becausehcisunabletodistinguishthevowels／eiland／e／JamesoffersadetailedstudyofcomprehensioneH‘orsorreceptiveerrorsMeanwhile，hestressesthenecessityofstudyingboth，reflectingaprogressinerroranalysis．Oneofthemostimportantstepsinlearnererrorstudyistooflerreasonableexplanations，inJames‘words，todiagnoseerrors．Onlywhenthesourceoferrorsisfoundout，canelT01’Sbetreatedandcorrectedappropriately，canfeasibleandeffectivemethodsbeofferedtotheteachingpractice．James1121thinkstherearesevenpossiblecausesforthelearners’errors．Manisinclinednotonlytocommiterrorsbuttoerrinhisjudgment．Buthowtoevaluatethem?MostbooksonSLAevaluateerrorsfromerrorproduction，butJames1121statesthaterrorshouldbeevaluatedintemlsofcomprehensibilityincludingintelligibilityandcommunicativity；tbrspeakersspeakinordertobeunderstood．Totheoppositeofcolnmunicative—nlethodadvocateswhoareinfavoroferrorseIf-correction．Jamesl|2]listssevenreasonstothrowlightonthenecessityandthepositiveeffectsoferrorcorrection．Therefore，Jamesbelievesthatcorrectionshouldbeeffective，sensitive．compatiblewithstudentpreforcnces．Thisisoneofdaefewestmonographsonerroranalysis，mainlyaimingatacriticalreviewofmanystudiesabouttheachievements，agreements，differencesandexisting⋯Ellis．RTheStud)7。，SecondLanguagedcqutsilionOxfordShanghaiForeignLanguagcl-；ducationPtessShanghai2 problems，contributingmuchtothedeepunderstandingoEerroranalysis．2。3．2RichardsInfact，notalltileerrorsarcattributedtotheinterferenceofLI，ItisquiteobviousthatCAalonejsinsufficienttOaccountforwhydifferentpeoplelearllthesanleI，2SOdifferently。“Ite4iswalksquickly,’’Theerrorinthissenteilce”iswalks”isdescribedasovergeneralization，atermwhichRichards[17】employedindescribinginstanceswherethelearnersproduceddeviantstructuresbasedOilregularstt’nc{uresinthe1’L．T1lisisnotacase011intert?rence。Therefore．Richardsll”offeredanon．contrastiveapproach酶erroranalysisandidentifiedanumberofdiffel’entsourcesandCausesofintralingualanddevelopmentalerrorsasfollows：j)Overgeneralizafion：ittakesplacebyusingpreviouslyavailablestrategiesinnewSUFl’oundings．Forexample，“Hecall4sings—comesfromtheovergencralizationoftheallowedruleinEnglish‘’Hecansing’’and‘‘Hesings”．2)Ignoranceofrulerestrictions：itoecl．ffsbyapplyingrulestOcow,textswheretheydonotapply．Forexample．一ltehadnle4togetup‘’emergesfromtheextensionofthepatternlbundwiththemaiorityofverbsthattakeinfinitivalcomplementssuchas‘。Heasked／wanted／invitedmetogo”；3)Incompleteapplicationofrules：ithappensasaresultofredundancy．Forexample，‘+8Youlike拇sing?”isobservedl。usedeclarativewordorderinquestionsinplaceofinterrogativewordorder“Doyouliketosing?”4)Falseconceptshypothesized：thekindot、errorsoccurwhenthelearnerattemptstObuilduphypothesesaboutthetargetlanguageOilthebasisoflimitedexperience，forexmnple、theuseof。was’asamarkerofpasttensein‘‘Onedayit。washappeiled”．Tilefirstthreetypesot、errorsbelongtointralingualerrorsarisingfifoI]]tilefaihiresofruleapplicationwhilethcfourthisakindofdevelopmentalerrors。AnanalysisOfthetypesandsourcesoftheerrorsmentionedaboveisbeneficialforteacherstosolveparticulm‘problemsbecatlsethecausesoftheerrorsarelikelytobeattributedtotheteacher’S；nstrtlction， 垒11垒!型兰!!型i!!塑：!!!塑!芏竺!!盟!!!!型!!：兰!S!!塑l塑型!!竺!兰!!!堡!!!!!!!!12。3。3OtherrelevantstudiesManybooksarefoundIobeaboutthecomprehensivereviewanddiscussionoftherelevantstudiesdoneOntheanalysisofleamererrors．Nevertheless，SOlnedifferentandpeculiarpointsarestillofferedinthepartsofeachbook，whichwillbedescribedanddiscussedinthissection．AlltherelevantmethodologiesintroducedandtheoriesdoneintheSLAfieldconcerningCA，EA，ILcanbehelpfulnotonlytotheauthor’SprojectbuttotheinstructionofF'Lteachersandthelearningof"learners。i)SubstantivefindingsoninterlanguagestudiesaredescribedandthreeprinciplesgoverningILdevelopmentarementioned(Freeman＆Long[8]12)AbriefreviewaboutthefivestepsinEAresearch：errorcollection，identification，description，explanationandevaluation(Ellis阻Brown[21)；3)Sourcesoferrors：cognitivestrategiesandstylesorpersonalityvariables--interlingualtransfer，intratingualtransfer,contextoflearningandcommunicationstrategies(Brown吩simplificationbyomission，internalsyllabusandfossilizationillpronunciation(Littlewood[16】)；4)Moreconcerl3isputwiththesuggestionaboutthenatureot、languageandL2teachingandlearning．(Wedell＆Liut2吣2．4RelevantstudiesundertheChinesecontextUndertheChinesecontext，exceptlbrthedatabaseoniearnerwritingerrors，directedbyGuil2”，therearefewworksdevelopingthelearneroralerrors．However．therearestillsonicrelevantpapersinthisfield，publishedbythelanguageteachers．Thestudiesmainlyfi)cusonsuchaspectsasfollows：1)Theanalysisol、errol’smadebycollegestudents：interlingualell‘orsandinn’alillgualerrors(Zhangl2t1)，Englishspellingerrors(Hel2飞velberrorsincludinginterlinguat，intraligual，communication—strategy—basedandinduced(Su[291)；2)Thesourceoflearnererrors：areview(Dair22】)，thetechnicalI、act叽thememorialfactor,thepsychologicalfactorandthephysicalfgctor(Li旧)，contextandculturalfactors(Lu＆Jian{27j：Chent2飞anxiety(Wang＆Wan{鼍Cheng&Sun[3|)，L1inter毙rence．1ack ofcompetenceinTLavoidanceandinappropriateteachingfsLll29t)；3)Thetreatmenttotheerrors：studentsarepossessedwiththeabilityself-correctionafterthetask—basedpairwork(Mal281)；correctionthinkingteaching(Liu[261)；1ndlscotlrSe41TherearecertainindividualdiffefenceswhenadvancedChineseEFLlearnersmakeOil．1ineandoff-linecorrectionsintheirowninterlanguagesystemfWcn&ZhuangI33J、2．5SummaryInthischapter,theauthorhassurveyedmorel_esearchworkinanalyzing]eal。herelTorsaldifferentstages．Asamatterfact．it'snotapiececakeforresearchersandlanguageteacherstohaveacompletenotionabouthowL2leamerscornmiterrors，sincethesludyIearnererrorsisamattercomplexity,involvingtoOlefieldssuchaslinguistics，sociology．cognitivepsychology，SLAandmoref_hctorssuchaspersonalityfiactors，socioculturalfactors、internalandexternal[hctorsNevertheless：accordingtoEllisntheeffortstofindoutmoreaboutlanguageacquisitionbystudyingleamererrorsismotivatedbythestrongdesiretoimproveEL]jformanyresearcherskeepbeingconcemedwithlanguageteaching． ChapterThreeTheoreticalBasisAtheoreticalframeworkisofgreatvaluetoanyreseal．ch{withoutwhichitislikeashipwithoutacompass．Inthischapter,atheoreticalbasiswillbepresentedintermsofInterlanguageHypothesis(IH)．Indealingwithlearnererrors，therearedifferenttheoriesatdifferentstages：CAgaineditspopularityuntilthelate1960swhenEAelnel’ged．“Thenoveltyel’EA，distinguishingitfi'omCA，WaSthatthemothertonguewas130rsupposedtoelaterthepicture，”44CAandEAhavesomelimitationsinunderstandingandtreatingearnerErrors．HenceIH．abettertheoreticalguidetonaythesis，willbedeveloped3．1Errorsandmistakes3,1．1CompetenceVS．performancedistinctionCorder[qlinkserrol。stofailuresincompetenceandmistakestOfailuresinDeIf’ormalace．“Anel'FOrcanbedefinedasadeviationfromthenornlsofthetargetlal39uage’’“、resultingfromlackel”knowledge．epresentingatackoflinguisticcompetence．“AmistakeOCCUFSwhenlearnerslhiltoperformtheircompetence”13，attributedtotheprocessingfailuresinlinguisticplanning，memorylimitations：andslipsoflongue．Mistakesareregardedas“regularfeaturesofnative．speakerspeech’’H，whileerrorsarecommittedby“onlylearnersofaL2’’‘5Hammerly’6claimsthat‘‘ahnostalltheerrorsol’SL，studentsaremarkedlydifl}rentfromthoseofmonolingualrlalivespeakersofthelanguage．”ThesimpleresponsetothisisthatNativespeakersfNSs)doiaotmakeerrors，sincetheyknowtheirM～1perfectlySoCorderl41arguesthat{laeEAshouldbelimitedtothestudyoferrorswhilemistakesshouldbeeliminatedfromtheanalysis，“James。CErmrslBlanguageleamingalloti{∞exploringerroranalysis，Addiso*lWes}eyLongmanLimilcd．；998：6l{e玲inledia2003，FI墨疆PBelting．t2Ellis,R+FheStudyel、SecoMLfingiiageAcquisitionOxlbrd：OMbrdUniversilyPrcsg、1994：51．Reprintedin1999．ShanghaiForeign[AlogtlageEducationPressShanghai3SlmiJat-too14SlITIIlarto@l5SillliIaIto①l6llammerb,IIFlum_lcyandAccuracy：FowardBalanceinLanguageTeachingand[．earningClevedon：MuhilingualMallots．199I：89 AnAnalyticalStudyontheOralErrorsofNon-EnglishMa：iorGraduateStudents3．1．2Incompletenessvs．imperfectiondistinctionAccordingtoJames【J2】．‘‘intentionality”playsasignificantroleinthedifference．·‘Anerrorarisesonlywhentherewasnointentiontocommitone．’’oItistrueinL2learners’spokenEnglish．Whentheyspeak，theydon’tmeantomakeerrorsandoftenhavenoawarenessofmakingerrors．Itisrelatedtoincompleteness，whichmeans‘。theunattainableidealofthenativespeaker‘⋯．Whenanysortofdevianceisintentionallyincorporatedintoasentenceoflanguage：itiscalledamistake．examplesbeingpoeticlanguageorajingleinads．Itisassociatedwith“imperfection”．3．1．3Acquisitionvs．1earningdistinctionJames【12]associateserror／mistakedistinctionwithacquisition／learningdistinctionadvancedbyKrashen[曩James@co”tendsthatelTorsaremade：一ACQUIRED+LEARNED，mistakesaremade：+ACQUIRED+LEARNED．Thedistinctionismaintainedquitethesameasthepair“knowingthat’’and’‘knowinghow”Formypart．recognizedfromtheperspectiveofateacherinsteadofthatofalearner．errorsareregularandsystematic：whichrepresentsthelearners‘systemofL2knowledge—theircompetence．Whereasmistakesaresporadic：one—timeevents．usuallyrecognizedandreadilycorrectedbythelearner．whichrepresentsproblemsofperlbrmanceErrorshaveawiderextent，referringtosomethingwrongnotonlyinspelling：pronunciationandgrammar．butalsoincontext，usage，acceptabilitMappropriateness，receptionanddiscourseetcInthisthesis，itisintendedtoanalyzethelearnerel’rol’s，coveringboththeerrorsandinistakesmentionedabove3．2LimitationsofCAandEA3．2．1ContrastiveAnalysis3．2．1．1ThehistoricalbackgroundofCAInthemiddleofthetwentiethcentury,CAbecameoneofthemostpi’evalentstudies①lamesCErrorsinlanguagelearnReprintedin2003FLTRPBe(jing③Byram，1988．inJames1998：53③JaruesCErrorsinlanguagelearnReprintedin2003FL丁RP‘Bcijing8 ManyappliedlinguistsfocusedonthestudyoftWOlanguagesincontrast．PilesofCOlnparativeandcontrastivedataOilMTandTLgavebirthtowhatisknownasCAItisbelievedthatCAisassociatedwithbehaviorismandstructuralism．whichprovidesCAwithapsychologicalrationaleandalinguisticaspect．Secondlanguagelearningflmdamentallyinvolvestheovercomingoftheinterferencesol、L1withL2andastl’ucturalanalysisofthetwolanguagesinquestion，whichmayhelplinguistsandlanguageteacherstopredictdifferentlevelsol!difticultiesellCOUnteredbyL2learners．Therelbre：thedifficultiesinEnglishlearningcanbedescribedandpredictedSOthatteacherscanhaveaclearpictureofwhichaspectsarclikelytogiverisetoparticularproblemsinL2learningThisknowledgewillenabletheteacherstolaystressonL2inputonstructuresinordertoeliminatethechancesoferrorsinducedbythefirstlanguageAccordingtoLado【【'1j，SLAisstronglyinfluencedbythelearners’L1．andtherole011L1mL2isnegativesincethestructuresofL1differfi'omthoseotlL2andthedifl?rencesbetweenLJandL2formdifficultiesinL2learningThus．“inthecomparisonbetweennativeandfol’eignlanguageliesthekeytoeasethedifficultyinforeignlanguagelearning’～James⋯alsogivesadetaileddescriptionofCAitisbelievedthatelementssimilarinT，IandL2willbceasiertolearnthanthosethatarediffelent，bywhichleamerscanbenefitfrompositiveLItransti：r．Otherwise，theyareencumberedbynegativetransferorinter’fez‘ence．ManyL2learnererrorsarebelievedtobeattributabletothenegativetransferofthenativelanguagetothetargetlanguage．Forexample．“1+very'happy”，becausetheequivalentsentenceinChineseis“我很幸福一，“Thepicture4iswanttotellUS⋯一equalstotheChinese“这幅画是想告诉我们⋯．．”．3．2．J．2ThelimitationsofCAPracticalexperienceshowsthatmanyerrors，committedbyL2learnerscouldnothavebeenpredictedbyCAMallyresearchesonSLAalsosuggestthatCAnlaybe“lnostpredictiveatthelevelofphonology,，andleastpredictiveatthesyntacticlevel’～Itisquilethecasetodetectthesoutherndialectalaccentsinthespeechofmygraduatestudentsbut①LadoRLinguisticAcrossCulturesAnnArbor：Universit5，ofMichiganPress1957：l②Richards．JCThcContextorl,anguageTeachingCambridge：CambridgeUhiversilYPress．1998：46Reprinlcdin200I．FUFRll+Beljing AnAnalyticalStudyOntheOralErrorsofNon·EnglishMajorGraduateStudcotsasfarassemanticandlexicallevelsareconcerned，CAisratherlesspredictable，tooTeachershavefoundthaterrorspredictedbyCAhavenotffequelrtlytakenplacewhereasmanyactualerrorswouldnothavebeenpracticed．Avarietyoferrorssuchas。‘hetired”，’’makehimtolaugh”．“lmusttOstudyhard”etcwhichhaveahighfrequencyofocculTencesregardlessofthelearner’Slanguagebackground，cannotbeattributedtotheinterferenceofL1．Virtually，theybelongtotheerrorsknownasintralingualanddevelopmentalerrors，reflectingthelearnerlScompetenceinthecourseofspeakingandillustratingsomeofthegeneralcharacteristicsoflanguageacquisition．Anyway,interferencefromtilemothertongueisnottheonlysourceoferrorAlthoughresearcherswouldliketobeabletopredicterrors，CAdoesnotprovidesufficientlyaccuratepredictions，anditspredictionsfocustoonarrowlyontheeffectsoftheL1．It’SquiteclearthatCAalonehasitsrestrictionstoaccountforallsourcesoferrorsandtirevariabilitybetweenL2learnerswhoareexposedtothesameamountoftheL2Perhapsthemostunsatist}cingaspectoftraditionalCAisitsassumptionthatLIplaysanegativeroleinlearningthesecondlanguage．3．2．2ErrorAnalysis3．2．2．1ThehistoricalbackgroundofEAWiththequestioningoftheroleofL1interference，thekindsot’errorsthatL2learnerscommittedarousedgreatinterestamongresearchersinthelate1960sandearly1970sandlaunchedanEAmovement．aimingtodescribeandexplainthesystematicnatureofdeviationsorerrorsgeneratedinthelearner’Slanguage．EAisbasedontheChomsky’Stransformational-generative(T-G)grammaticalfom3at，togetherwithpsychologyregardingthementalprocessofthelearnersasamajorfactm‘intheCOUrSeof"learning．Anattemptismadetorelateerrortogrammaticalrulesinordel’tOshowteachersinwhatsystematicwaysEnglishmaybewrongItisconceivedthatbynleansofen‘ofanalysisitwillbelikelytoidentifythelearningprocessesexperiencedbythelearnersforthesakeoffindingouthowlearners’L2proficiencyevolved．EAdoesnotpredictlikeCA，andthusdoesnottakethemothertongueintoacconnt．Itonlyanalyzeserllorsaftertheyhaveoccurred：andallowsfordifferentsourGesoferrors．Itclaimsthaterrorscallbeflflly211 descJ’ibedintermsoftheTL．‘FhemainsourceofdataforEAisthelargeamountoferrorsthatCAlailstoexplainorpredict．EA，unlikeCA，providesdataonrealproblemsandthismayleadtorightsolutionsintheL2teachingItisbelievedthaiEACansel’veasausefultooloftenandasameanse11investigatingaspecificreseal’chquestion．ThedevelopmentofEAowesmuchtotheworkof(-?order．3．2．2．2TheJimitationsofEANomatterhowmuchEAhascontributedtoSLAresearch，ithasreceivedinuchcriticismforitsperceivedweaknesses：“poorstatisticalinference．thesubjectivityofitsinterpl‘ctationsoferrorsanditslack011anypredictivepower”。EllisMclassifiestheweaknessesintotwokinds：1)weaknessesinmethodologicalproceduresinvoh,ingallstagesofanalysis，and2)limitationsinthescope．IntheauthorlSopinion，thereexistsomelimitationsinEAasfollows：1)EAstressesonlyonw,hatthelearnercannotdoatagivenpointintinle．itdoesn‘tgiveanyinsightsintothecourseofSLAprocess’l'hemajority,ofsamplescollectedarecross。sectional：thusmakingithardtotellexactlythedifferenterrorsmadeby'thelem’ncllSatdifferentstagesoftheirdevelopment2)ErrorsmaybewronglyclassifiedbetweenlanguagetasksThesameerrormaybeclassifiedasinterlingualandinlralingualForexample：+lieintelligent3)Itisdifficulttoidentifyerrors．whicharemainlyduetothedifferentusagesel、theL2norms：fonnalVS．informalcontext．spokenVSwrittenlanguage4)Learnerssometimesadopttheavoidancestrategy．Inthiscase．certaintypesoferrorsdon’tappearintheL2learner’Sperformance．EAcan’tshowwhenleamel。SresorttOavoidancetoavoidTLitemstheyareriOtSUl‘Cabout，SOasnoltocommiterrorswhichtheywouldbcexpectedtocommit5)EAlifilstoexplainthevariabilitybetweenL2lem‘llelSwhobarequitedifi'crentspokenoutputinspiteofthesameamountofsimilal‘typeofexposuretoEnglish．Fm’example．mygraduatestudentsmakeagreatdifferenceinoralperformanceinclassdespitetheirsimilarscoresinNETEM． AnAnalyticalStudyontileOral]srrmSofNon一[YnglishMaiorGraduateStudents6)Aboveall，MTisnottakenintoaccountinEA。Asitisclearlyshownjntheauthor’Squestionnaire，MTplaysallimportantroleinspokenEnglisherrors．Theanalysisoferrolls，especiallyinoralEnglish．caft’tbecat’riedoutwithouttheconsideration0fthevitalfactorM■3．3InterlanguageHypothesis(IH)3,3．1ThehistoricalbackgroundofIHInthelate1960s，secondlanguagelearningstartedtobeinvestigatedinmuchthesamewaythatchildrenstudyLIL1childllellarenotseenasproducersol、malformed，imperfecllanguagefulloferrorsbutasclever：creativebeings．Theycangothroughlogical，systematicperiodsoflanguageacquisitionandcreativelyactontheirlinguisticenvironmentinthemeaningfhlcontexts．’Fheyalsomakefrequentuseol’trialanderrorandhypothesistestingtobuilduptheirknowledgeol’languagestructureandfinallyachievetheproficiencyandapproximationstOlhesystemusedbynativespeakersofthelanguage．Theretbre．itissuggestedthatL2learnershavethecapability,【o()．L2leamm’SarelikelytodeveloptheirunderstandingofthestructurerulesoftheL2justasLIlearners。bytestingoutthehypothesesabouttheTI。li'ommanypossiblesourcesofknowledge：limitedknowledgeaboutTL，nativeculture，life，humanbeingsandtheuniverseetc．Anumbm’ot’termshavebeenused{odescribetheprocessofL2learning。Thewelt—knownandfrequenttermis‘‘interlanguage”，coinedbySelinker哆whichmeansthatthelanguageofL2learnersisindependentofboththelearners’mothertongueandtheTL，butasortofmixedlanguageofbothlanguages．L2[eamershaveapartiallycorrectpictureofL2structureintheirmindatanygivenlnomentintheL2learningprocess，madeupofmoreorlesscorrecthypothesisabouttheL2grammaticalsystem．Throughtheirownlinguisticsystem，L2learnerssolvethelinguisticchaosCOnfi'ontedbythem。3．3．2Thefeatures‘汴ll。3,3．2．1ThreeprinciplesFreeman＆Lon◇hasmadeasummaryO{somemaiorfindingsandreachedthe，anguageAcquisitionResearchLongmanGroupUK州验∞引％趴帆惶∽．叫ⅢB_塞"n』AH¨c；M∞备m肌叫＆mL叩DⅢ9薹堇①胁 conclusionintermsofthteeprinciplesgoverningII。development：1)1Lsvarysystematically；2、1LSexhibitCOnlrnonacquisitionordersprovidedbymorphemestudiesanddevelopmentalsequencesinaspectsofinterrogativesandnegation；3)i}，Sareinfluencedbythelearner’SL1：howandwhenintermsofmarkednessandperceivedtransferability．7Fhcprinciplesarecloselyrelatedtoaccountforhowleamerslearnsecondlanguagesandwhylearnersmakeerrorsintheil‘production．3．3．2．2InternalsyllabusAccordingtoLitttewood[}6j_粕internalsyllabusworkswhenalearnerapproachesthelearningtaskwithactivestrategies，whichisofgreathelptohimtocreativelyconstructtherulesunderlyingthesecondlanguage．Inthecase，thelearnerislikelytochoosedifferentwaystoapplythelearningstrategiesdifferently．HoweveLaclassroomlearnerisofferedanexternalsyllabus，inwhicheveryitemislearnedinateachingordeENosooneristhelearnerplacedintoa11uncontrolledsituation．whereheisfortedtoUSethelanguagen_lorefreelyandnaturally岛rtilepurposeofcommunication．thanhemakesavarietyofsimilarerrors，’‘irrespectiveofwhmcourseofinstructiontheyhavefollowedorwhethertheyhavereceivedforuminstructionatall”。．3．3．2，3ThreeassumptionsILcontainsthreekeyassumptionsdiscussedcteal-tybyNemser：'2：11“Learners’speechatagivenfiIneisthepatternedproductol’alinguisticsystem，distinctfrom啦esourcelanguageandthetaNetlanguageandinternallystructured”Ot。hasagrammarofitsown；2)Thelearnersdevelopdistinctanddifferentlinguisticsystemstoformevolvingseries；3)Inagivencontactsituation，thetearnel’Satthesamestageofdevelopmentorproficiencywillproducesimilar’typesol、tltterances。④Lkttewood．姒ForeignandSecondLanguageLearningCambridge：CamN一学蜘i、一crsityPress；1990Repllutedin2002．F咿RP“9e{iing②Nesmcr,197I，inFreenlall＆Long．1991：6023 AnAnalyticalStudyontheOralErrorsofNon—EnglishMajorGraduateStudentsThus。亿maybeunderstoodbetterprovidedthatitistakenasacontinuumbetweenL1madL2alongwhichalileamersntove．3．3．2．4II。continuumThevariabilitybetweenL2learnerscanbeaccounted{brbyindividualinterlanguages．Wedeltl2《qstatesthatdifferentindividualswillhavefonnedtheiro'vYnseriesofdifferenthypothesesaboutthestructureof12：theirOWninterlanguages．Individuals，therefore，varyeachotherintherangeandnumberofEnglishcorrectgrammaticalrules，MilcharerootedintheirmemoryresultingfromtheexposuretoL2．L2learnersvarynotonlyincommandinggranlnlar,butalsoinproductionandcomprehensionofEnglish，Tarone。putsforwardtheContinuumol、competence，refelTingto“theextenttowhicheachcorrecthypothesisabouttheL2grammaticalsystemislikely，correctlyapplied，inactualproductionortobcusedcorrectly,tohelpcomprehension”．Therearetwoendsofthecontinuun't：Care矗llStylepayingmoreattentiontocOlTeCtnessandVernacularStyleconcerningmuchnaturalUSeofEnglishwithoutmuchwon-yingaboutaccuracy．MostL2learnerslailtoreachtheendoftheinterlanguagecontinuumbutstaysomewherealongthecontinuum。andthustheyfifiltoreachtheTLcompetence．ItisquiteclearinFigure1below．MiddleschoolPostgraduateAbs01ut。1I～l}NScommunicativebeginnerUndergraduateRemrnfromcompetencestudyabroadngt￡”3ilheImerlangtlogeCollll'ftltltrllnVedelt,t995．157l"igw'e印NomatterhowlongandhowmuchEnglishlearnersstudyEnglish，itisbetterconsistently{oputtocorrectllSelearnedgrammaticalandphonologicalrulesatthecarefuletadofthecontinuum，SOtospeak．inibrmalxA,"l’itingwhileitishardtbrthesanlelearnm’toUSetilesamerulescorrectlyinthecasualCOtltextsofspokenEnglish，Agoodcaseinpointisthatmanyofmy11011一HlajOlgraduatestuden括failtoapplythepronouns‘‘she”and“he’’consistentlyinspeech．It’Snotthattheydon’tknowtherules，butthattilel-ulesarcnotfossilizedintherightfimnsintheirlong—terlllmemoD'． 3．3．3ErroranalysisinterlnsoflL3。3。3。1ProceduresAnanalysisoforalell-orscmlbcconductedwithfivestepsasfollows：I)Samplecollection：collectanlassive，specific，incidentalsampleoflearnerlanguageinthewayCROSS—sectionalorlongitudinalway；2)Enoridentification：identi母errorsfollowingaprocedurebyreferencetonormal．authoritative，andplausibleinterpretations3)Errordescription：classiCerrorsintolinguisticandsuperliciatstrategies。4)Errorexplanation：explainerrorspsycholingui8ticaIlythroughtransfer，intralingualorinstruction；5)Errol‘evaluation：valuetheeffectofdifferenterrorsonthepersonaddressedeitherintermsofcomprehensionOrafloctivcresponse．3．3。3．2’fvpesoforalerrorsJamesI’2jclassifiesoralerrorsintothreelevelsbothinproductionandcomprehension：substanceerrorsreferringtOphonologicalones，texterrorsreferringtothelexico—grammaticalonesanddiscourseelrotsrel；erringtOthepragmaticonesorinfelicity．CordelJ41differserrorsofcompetencefrommistakesinpertbrmanceandarguesthaiEAshouldinvestigateonlyerrors．Howeverinthisthesis，theauthoralsolookSintoslips，i．e，mistakesinspeaking，whichmostlyOCCtlr011thelevelofphonology(pronunciation)．Forexample，thethirdpersonsingulm。Sending．andtheinterdentalfi'icatives151and／0／areoftenconfusedAccordingtoEllis["．errorsintemlsofl乙callbeclassifiedintocategoriesofvariation：systematicvariationandnon—systematicvariation．VariabilityisakeyelementinILAtanygivenstageofdevelopment，thes3，stemot”the[camel—sII。containslinguisticformsthatareguidedbyroles‘‘withoneruleguidingperfollnanceononeoccasionandanotherruleonadifferentoccasion“’．Theycanbeaccountedfol‘byreferencetocontextordegreeofattentionwhiletheoihel‘categoryofvariationthatisnotdeterminedbythedifferentlinguisticandsituationalconlextsisinnon—systematicvariation．Aframeworkof“EllisRUnder,t'ta，ldmgsecondlanguagemquisill'on()xlbrd：OxfbtdUnJversil3，Press1985：75Reprlnledinl999ShanghaiForeignIAulguageEducationPressSharlghai1i AnAnalyticalStudyonlheOralErrorsofNon-EoglishMajorGraduateStudentsthetypesofvariabilityisprovidedinFigure2below．rindividualvariabilityj(i．e．productofindividuallearnerfact01“s)f875‘。m3。i。。4。i86“i‘’t。。。．。。钯。，。磊i蠢。i，i移linguisticcontextVariabilityin
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